Slavery in Brazil

Edmund Burke, the acclaimed author and philosopher once said, â€Å"Slavery is a weed that grows on every soil. † Between the 16th and 19th century in the Americas, millions on millions of slaves were brought to the New World. There purpose was to work. The economy of most European colonies in America was dependent on slaves. The land that was discovered in Americas was useless with out sufficient slave labor to exploit it. In this essay, I will focus on two nations where slavery played an enormous role in the development of that country. First, The United States, where in 1860 in South Carolina over 50 percent of the population were slaves.Next, Brazil, the nation where about one third of all salves from Africa were brought. In this essay I will compare slavery in The United States to slavery in Brazil, I will dissect the similarities and differences while focusing on why and how the slaves came, the demographic and religious aspects, the treatment of the slaves, and the afte rmath on both countries due to slavery. Around the year 1530 the Portuguese came to Brazil in search of land and natural resources, specifically sugar. As the Portuguese and the indigenous people of Brazil battled for land, the Brazilians resisted against being enslaved.As the Portuguese presence grew in Brazil so did disease, causing the death of most of the working indigenous people. As the number of sugar plantations grew, the demand for workers did as well. This is the main reason why Brazil began to import slaves from Africa. Although the origin of slaves in The United States was similar to Brazil, there were some differences. In the year 1619, only around 10 years after the British began to colonize US, a Dutch slave trader exchanged about 20 Africans for food in Jamestown, Virginia. Like Brazil, the U. S needed workers for plantations, but while Brazil focused on the sugar plantations, the U.S was focused on the tobacco plantations. In general, both Brazil and the U. S lacked a major resource in order to maintain a strong economy, that resource being workers. Although Brazil used more slaves towards sugar and the U. S used more towards tobacco, in general the slaves worked in mines or they worked in a sugar, rice, tobacco, or cotton plantation. Although the U. S played a larger role in the process, both Brazil and the U. S participated in the Triangular Slave Trade. Some say the Triangular Slave Trade is the reason why 10 to 15 million of Africans were shipped to the Americas between 1650 and 1860.The slave trade was simple yet wrong on so many levels. The slave trade took several different routes, but there were two popular ones. The most common route would first start in Europe where the Europeans would trade manufactured goods for slaves in Africa. Next, the slaves were transported across the Atlantic Ocean to Brazil and the Caribbean where the slaves were sold for huge profits or traded for sugar, coffee, and tobacco. The journey from Africa to the Americas was known as the middle passage. Olaudah Equiano was a slave captured and sold into slavery.In his book, The Life of Olaudah Equiano the African, when describing the middle passage he writes, â€Å"I was soon put down under the decks, and there I received such a greeting in my nostrils as I had never experienced in my life; I became so sick and low that I was not able to eat. I now wished for the last friend, death, to relieve me; but soon, to my grief, two of the white men offered me eatables; and, on my refusing to eat, one of them held me fast by the hands, and laid me across, The white people looked and acted, as I thought, in so savage a manner; for I had never seen among my people such instances of brutal cruelty.The closeness of the place, and the heat of the climate, almost suffocated us. The air soon became unfit for respiration, from a variety of loathsome smells, and brought on a sickness among the slaves, of which many died. The shrieks of the women, and the gr oans of the dying, rendered the whole a scene of horror almost inconceivable. As you can tell, the conditions were brutal to say the least. Another popular triangular route taken was ships from the U. S colonies would take rum and other products to Africa in exchange for Slaves.From there, the slaves were taken to Brazil and the Caribbean and sold for profit or sold for sugar and molasses to take back to the U. S where then the sugar and molasses was sold to rum makers. In general, the slave trade was horrific and inhumane, however, it is the reason that the U. S and Brazil were able to maintain a steady economy. Although there were many similarities between the Brazilian slaves and the U. S slaves, there were quite a few specific differences as well. One of the largest differences in slavery between Brazil and the U. S was demographic.Generally speaking, the Brazilian slaves were usually decreasing while the U. S slaves were usually increasing. This is due to several reasons. First , the Brazilians had a much lower proportion of female slaves compared to the U. S who had an equal sex ratio. In Brazil, due to the lack of female slaves, they had a much lower birth rate then the U. S did. Both the death rate and suicide rate was also higher in Brazil compared to the U. S. Due to the low birthrate and the high death rate, Brazil had trouble to maintain a population resulting in having to continuously import slaves.On the other hand, the average number of children born to an early 19th century U. S slave woman was 9. 2; this is twice as many as Brazil and the Caribbean. All these reasons are why Brazil had a much larger number of recent arrivals from Africa while the U. S had a predominately American slave born population. Also, this is why out of the millions and millions of Africans who were brought to the New World, over one-third landed in Brazil and between 60 and 70 percent ended up in Brazil or the sugar colonies of the Caribbean.According to Henry John Temp le, the well-known British Prime Minister of the 19th century, he suggests that there were about 3,000,000 slaves in Brazil in the 19th century. Although it is hard to know the exact number, most historians agree that it was around 3,000,000, which would be about forty percent of the whole population. On the other side, in 1860, the slaves in the U. S were only about 13 percent of the entire population. Generally speaking, in Brazil slaves worked on much larger plantations then in the U. S.Most Brazilian plantations held about 150 slaves per plantation. In the U. S, it was quite different. According to Carl Deglar, who wrote, Slavery in Brazil and the United States, he states, â€Å"Out of all the plantations in the U. S, more the half the slaves worked on units with 20 slaves or less. † In the U. S it would not be uncommon for the slaves to deal with their owners on a daily basis, while in Brazil some worked on plantations with hundreds and hundreds of other slaves where it would be rare to encounter your owner. When comparing Brazil and the U.S today, the demographic differences during the days of slavery is one of the main reasons why the two countries are so different One may think that since the slaves were brought to the U. S and Brazil for similar reasons then they all were treated the same, had the same rights, and were viewed the same. Although this is by no means entirely false, there are a few specific differences on how the slaves were treated in the US compared to how the slaves were treated in Brazil. Religion among the slaves was vital for some while non-existent for others. In the U.S, religion was discouraged for the slaves. The average white American slave owner thought there was no need to ever have a slave practice a religion. This could be due to the fact that nowhere in the Catholic Christian teachings does it say it’s acceptable to enslave and treat a fellow Christian as the owners were treating their slaves. In 1831, Virgi nia passed a law stating, â€Å"Slaves and free Negroes were forbidden to preach, exhort or teach in any prayer-meeting or other association for worship where slaves of different families are collected together on penalty of not more than thirty-nine lashes. In Brazil, the Christianity of a slave was viewed quite different. Some slave owners even viewed it as an essential for a slave to work on his farm. In some cases the slaves would even have to perform a religious ritual even before they stepped foot in Brazil. Instead of being viewed as complete property, the slaves in Brazil were given a chance to practice a religion, in particular, practice the teachings of the Catholic Church. The slaves that departed from Angola, Africa to Brazil were baptized before they got on board the ship.When they arrived in Brazil, the slaves were acknowledged as baptized and had to begin learning the prayers, doctrines, and functions of the Church. In Brazil, marriage was actually acceptable and val id. In 1711, the Constituicoes Primeiras of the Archbishopric of Bahia reaffirmed the legitimacy of marriages between slaves, and between free persons and slaves. According to the Constituicoes, masters could not prevent their slaves from marrying, nor could they separate them once they had wed. Although this may sound promising, it sounds better then it actually was.Most slave owners did not abide by the law that you could not separate a married slave. In general, they still viewed them more as property then people. According to Fernando Henrique Cardoso, the former president of Brazil, he states, â€Å"Of the 660,000 slaves in all of Brazil in 1875, who were 14 years or older, only about 1 out of 6 was recorded as married or widowed. † In terms of religion, it is true that the Brazilian slaves had more rights then the U. S slaves, but not by much. As you can see both the U.S and Brazilian slave owners were more determined on making profit by making the slaves strenuously wo rk then anything else. Although both Brazil and U. S slave owners had complete ownership and control over their slave, the way they treated them did differ between countries. Theoretically, both Brazil and the U. S had laws against murder, abuse, and over working the slave. The difference is, generally speaking, in Brazil some of those laws were carried out while in the U. S, it was rare to see anyone ever defend a slave. In the U. S, the slave owner acted as the judge and jury for any issue involving his slave.In Brazil, a slave had somewhat of a right to a jury. For instance, say a slave owner murdered his slave in the U. S. In most cases it would go unheard of, but even if it were taken to court, it would have been extremely rare if the owner were prosecuted for anything. Now, if a slave owner murdered his slave in Brazil, by law the court should have prosecuted the case as if the slave was a free man. Although it may sound that slavery in Brazil was a lot less harsh, in reality, this judicial approach in Brazil is what should have happened, but as you can guess, it rarely ever did.Henry Koster, a famous German author and film director, in his novel, Travels to Brazil, he states, â€Å"occasionally a cruel master was fined for maltreating his slaves but, I have never heard of a punishment having been carried farther then this trifling manner of correction. † Although by law, the Brazilians compared to the U. S had stricter laws protecting the slaves, when it comes down to the truth, in both countries the slave was viewed more as property then human, mistreating your slave was seen as mistreating your property. One of the biggest differences when comparing U.S slavery to Brazilian slavery concerns manumission. Manumission, meaning the act of freeing a slave, was undoubtedly less common in the U. S compared to Brazil. The number proportion of free slaves in Brazil compared to the number proportion to free slaves in the U. S proves that manumission was more frequent in Brazil. In 1818, for every one free African in Brazil, there were only three slaves. This ratio is compared to with that in the U. S in 1860, when for every one free African, there were eight slaves. By 1872, the number of free Africans in Brazil was more then double the amount that were still slaves.The numbers show that there’s indisputable evidence to prove that manumission was more frequent in Brazil. It is important to note that Brazilian slave owners were freeing the sick and the old more so then the U. S, however, the sick and the old simply would not have been capable to produce offspring in numbers to explain the large number of free Africans in Brazil. Marvin Harris, the famous American anthropologist, along with many other historians suggests another explanation to why there were such a higher percentage of free Africans in Brazil compared to The United States.As stated before, in Brazil in the late 19th century, the free Africans greatly outnumber ed the slaves. The big difference was that Brazil needed those free Africans in order to maintain their economy. The free black slaves in Brazil produced food, were craftsmen, and even slave catchers. They performed the tasks that slave labor was too hard to achieve and the whites thought they were too good to do. This was not the occurrence in The United States. First, the U. S was importing more food rather then growing it like Brazil did, and the food that was being produced in the U.S was produced by whites in the South and Northwest. Also, the U. S had enough white men to perform the tasks that the free Africans in Brazil were doing. Therefore, for the U. S there was no economic reason for the whites to turn towards manumission as Brazil did. It did not matter if you were a slave in Brazil, The United States, Caribbean, Central America, or anywhere else, something that they all had in common was the attempt to run and become a free man. Some succeeding, some did not. In Brazil, escaped slaves formed communities like the ones they were forced to leave in their homeland.These communities were called quilombos. Compared to the U. S, the slaves in Brazil had a greater and a better chance for escape. The number of escaped slaves, the number of revolts, and the size of the quilombos were all greater in Brazil. Although there were plenty of revolts and escapes in the US, generally speaking, there were fewer participants then Brazil. In most of The United States, the climate was to cold in the winter to survive on your own compared to Brazil where the climate was reasonable. Also, Brazil was full of forests to hide in compared to the U. S where the areas were policed heavier.The large quilomobs communities in Brazil may contribute to the fact that today, in Brazil the blacks are seen as Brazilians while in certain parts of The United States, the blacks are still seen as Africans. During the days of slavery, discrimination towards blacks was clearly brutal and rut hless. The horrific and saddest result of slavery in The United States is that race prejudice still exists today. I am not saying that blacks are thought of as they were in the 18th century, but in The United States today, especially in the South, there is still discrimination towards colored people.After slavery was abolished in The United States, by no mean did that make the whites and blacks have equal rights. Even after the abolition of slavery, a black man still could not vote, give testimony in court for a white man, marry white women, hold office, and many other terrible things. Brazil, on the other hand, as writer Herbert Alexander puts it, â€Å"the race problem had been allowed to solve itself. † For example, in the seventeenth century, one of the three main officers when the Brazilians fought the Dutch was Henrique Diaz, a black man.This is something you would have never saw in The United States. The United States and Brazil were one of the last nations to abolish slavery in all of the Americas. The Civil War, which lasted from 1861 to 1865, ended slavery in the United States. In 1888, due to international political pressure, Brazil being the last nation to do it in the Americas, finally abolished slavery. Unlike The United States, Brazil was able to abolish slavery with out catastrophic violence. In both Brazil and The United States, the horrific terror of slavery in the 16th to 19th century is something everyone would want to forget.However, during that time period slavery was the reason why both The United States and Brazil’s economies were both stable and on the rise. Overall, when looking into the history of slavery in both The United States and Brazil, although there are differences and similarities, the time period of slavery explains greatly to why present day life in both unique countries is what it is. Bibliography Alexander, Herbert B. â€Å"Brazilian and United States Slavery Compared. † – Wikisource, the Free Online Library. N. p. , 2 Feb. 2001. Web. 12 Dec. 2012. Bergad, Laird W.The Comparative Histories of Slavery in Brazil, Cuba, and the United States. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007. Print. Brogan, Hugh. The Penguin History of the United States of America. London: Penguin, 2001. Print. Carmody, Padraig. â€Å"Unit Three: Studying Africa through the Humanities. † Exploring Africa. N. p. , 4 Nov. 2002. Web. 12 Dec. 2012. Carter, Tom. â€Å"Race and Slavery in America. † Opinion Forum RSS. N. p. , 28 Feb. 2009. Web. 12 Dec. 2012. Davis, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World. New York: Oxford UP, 2008. Print. Degler, Carl N.Slavery in Brazil and the United States: An Essay in Comparative History. 4th ed. Vol. 75. Washington, D. C.? : American Historical Association. , 1970. Print. â€Å"Differences In Slave Laws In Colonial Brazil And Colonial British North. † 123HelpMe. com. 10 Dec 2012 Dodson, Howard. â€Å"How Slavery Helped B uild a World Economy. † National Geographic. N. p. , 3 Feb. 2003. Web. 12 Dec. 2012. Equiano, Olaudah, and Shelly Eversley. The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or, Gustavus Vassa, the African. New York: Modern Library, 2004. Print. Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty! An American History. New York: W. W. Norton &, 2008. Print. Gomez, Flavio S. Africans and Slave Marriages in Eighteenth-century Rio De Janeiro. N. p. : Sheridan, n. d. Print. Koster, Henry. Travels to Brazil. New York: Kessinger, 2012. Print. Mattoso, Katia MAE. To Be a Slave in Brazil, 1550-1888. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 1986. Print. Mintz, Sean. â€Å"American Slavery in Comparative Perspective. † Digital History Copyright. Mintz S and McNeil S, 3 Jan. 2003. Web. 12 Dec. 2012. Paine, Thomas. â€Å"African Slavery in America. † Pennsylvania Journal and the Weekly Advertiser. Philadelphia] 14 Apr. 1775: n. pag. Print. Reis, Joao Jose. Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprisi ng of 1835 in Bahia. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1995. Print. Tony, Dunnel. â€Å"History of African Slavery in Brazil. † Suite101. com. The University of Nottingham, 8 Sept. 2009. Web. 12 Dec. 2012. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Laird W Bergad. The Comparative Histories of Slavery in Brazil, Cuba, and the United States. Print. 115-120 [ 2 ]. Herbert B. Alexander â€Å"Brazilian and United States Slavery Compared. † Web. 12 Dec. 2012. [ 3 ]. Olaudah Equiano.The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano. Print. 35 [ 4 ]. Sean Mintz. â€Å"American Slavery in Comparative Perspective. † Web. 12 Dec. 2012. [ 5 ]. Laird W Bergad. The Comparative Histories of Slavery in Brazil, Cuba, and the United States. Print. 115-120 [ 6 ]. Jose Joao Reis. Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Uprising of 1835 in Bahia. Print. 8 [ 7 ]. Laird W Bergad. The Comparative Histories of Slavery in Brazil, Cuba, and the United States. Print. 117 [ 8 ]. Carl N. Degler. Slavery in Brazil and the United States: An Essay in Comparative History. Print. 006 [ 9 ]. Herbert B. Alexander â€Å"Brazilian and United States Slavery Compared. † Web. 12 Dec. 2012. [ 10 ]. Flavio S. Gomez. Africans and Slave Marriages in Eighteenth-century Rio De Janeiro. Print. 42-50 [ 11 ]. Carl N. Degler. Slavery in Brazil and the United States: An Essay in Comparative History. Print. 1009 [ 12 ]. Henry Koster. Travels to Brazil. Print. 77 [ 13 ]. Carl N. Degler. Slavery in Brazil and the United States: An Essay in Comparative History. Print. 1012 [ 14 ]. Herbert B. Alexander â€Å"Brazilian and United States Slavery Compared. † Web. 12 Dec. 2012.

Presentation Of Behaviorism And Social Learning Essay

Learning about how and why people and animals alike behave in a specific way has always been a topic of interest that spans even in the Olden Times, hence, Behaviorism came about.   It is a theory which takes learning as the result of the actions of the environment on the learner. ( Denis & Phillips, 2003, p.7 ).   Associated with this theory is the view of tabula rasa, where the mind has nothing and that all information our mind has is a result of the experiences we go through.   Under Behaviorism are the following types of learning: Classical Conditioning, which depicts the connection between stimulus and response. (Davis, 2002, p.166)   Imagine a new born baby who cried because it was slapped by the doctor on the buttocks. The slap on the buttocks was the stimulus, and crying was the response to that stimulus. Operant Conditioning deals more with the positive and negative outcomes of a response, simply put, positive and negative reinforcements.  Ã‚   For example: a child studies hard because every time that child gets high grades, a gift is given to that child.   The giving of the gift reinforces the child’s behavior to earn high grades for the long-term.   Another type of learning that falls under Behaviorism is the Social Learning Theory, which involves the observation of admirable things, which are thus, modeled or mirrored.   (Kafai, 2004, p.129). This learning theory can be summed up through these words: â€Å"Learning by Observation.† A child following the footsteps of an elder sibling who has been recognized due to excellent grades can be a good example of the Social Learning Theory in application.   The Self-Efficacy Theory, a theory that falls under the Social Learning Theory also plays an important role in psychology. It states that the person’s perception of what he or she can do or is capable of, makes that person choose actions that will pave the way for him/her reaching set goals.   Personality Development/Self-Confidence Books/Courses embody self-efficacy, as it is common knowledge that if you believe in yourself, more often than not, you succeed in a task. Behaviorism, I believe, can be used for self-understanding and self-improvement. References Davies, Martin. (2002). The Blackwell Companion to Social Work. Britain: Blackwell Publishing. Denis, Charles., & Phillips, Jonas F. Soltis. (2003). Perspectives on Learning.   New York: Teachers College Press. Kafai, Yasmin B. (2004). Embracing Diversity in the Learning Sciences. Yorkshire: Routledge.

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Scapegoat Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

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The life of moises from his birth until he gave joshua control of the Term Paper

The life of moises from his birth until he gave joshua control of the israelites - Term Paper Example Because Moses led the people of Israel out of bondage, and this was helped along with a series of miracles, Moses deserves the moniker of being the greatest leader of all time. The Life of Moses According to Feldman (2007), at the time that Moses was born, around 1592 B.C. by the Christian calendar, and 1391 B.C. by the Jewish calendar, the Pharaoh was afraid of an Israelite revolution against him, so he ordered that all the male infants be put to death. That said, Feldman (2007) cites scholars who question this, stating that it does not make sense that the Pharaoh would order this, as Israelites were important as slaves to the Egyptians, and males, especially, were important, because they were stronger and could do more work than the females could. That said, the Bible, in Exodus 1:10, according to Feldman (2007), clearly states that the Pharaoh was afraid that the Israelites were getting too numerous, and that they would try to take over the country. Therefore, to hide Moses from t he Pharaoh’s edict regarding Israelite male children, Moses’ family decided to put him in a basket and float him down the river, where the Pharaoh’s daughter was, as she had decided to go to the river to bathe at this time. She sent her maidservant to pick up the basket, and she rescued Moses out of the river (Feldman, 45). According to Cohen (2007), Moses, because of the circumstances of his birth and adoption, was of two different worlds. This was because, even after he was pulled from the river by the Pharaoh’s daughter, he continued to be with his mother while the boy was nursed. As Beegle (1972) notes, the Pharaoh’s daughter had to find a Hebrew woman to nurse the boy, and Moses’ mother presented herself for this task. The Pharaoh’s daughter paid Moses’ mother to nurse him, and the Pharaoh’s daughter adopted the beautiful Moses (p. 52). At this point, according to Cohen, the Biblical story of Moses jumps ahead a few years to the point where Moses has grown up, and decided to visit his own people, the Hebrews (p. 55). At this time, Moses was around 40 years old, so, assuming the Christian calendar, the date was around 1552 B.C. during this event. Cohen (2007) notes that this was a hallmark of leadership, because Moses experienced luxury when he lived with his adoptive mother, the Pharaoh’s daughter, but, as leaders often do, he decided to take on a lifestyle which is more burdensome. This is because he wanted to serve his people and his community. Moreover, Cohen (2007) notes that Moses had an intense desire to connect with his brothers and sisters, and this was another reason why he was driven to visit his birth family. Moses did not see that these people were any different from him, even though he had lived the life of luxury, and this was because he was able to see that his family, and the enslaved Hebrews in general, were his brothers and sisters, his kin (p. 9). As Cohen (2007) note s, because Moses, after visiting his birth family, saw that the Hebrews were his brothers and sisters, he could not stand to see the way that they were treated by the Egyptians. Therefore, he struck down an Egyptian who was beating a Hebrew slave.

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The Emergence of Euro Companies - Essay Example This is quite astounding, particularly in regards to the United States, as the U.S. has, for quite some time now, been considered and known as being the most profitable and economically stable nation in the world. The issue of the emergence of Euro Companies as being significant global economic entities over the past few years is one which is of incredible importance and significance, and in order to be able to better understand about this matter overall, there are several factors that need to be thoroughly addressed and discussed. The aim of this paper is to not only discuss the issue of Euro Companies, what they are and their primary purpose, but as well to discuss the fact of how they emerged and became considered as being significant global economic entities, particularly over the past few decades. Therefore, here being discussed will not only be the topic of how Euro Companies have emerged and become significant global economic entities, but as well in regards to how operating a cross European culture and institutional boundaries may constitute as both a challenge and an opportunity for such organizations, as well as any and all other key and related issues. This is what will be dissertated in the following. In order to understand about Euro Companies in regards to any issue, you need to first recognize and understand about what Euro Companies actually are. Basically, and quite simply, a Euro Company is a company that is located or was begun in Europe or surrounding areas of Europe, and although they certainly do have many similarities to those companies that are in other areas of the world, particularly North America, there are many differences as well, of which are just as important, if not more, to take notice of. There are two constitutional principles in particular which are reflected with Euro Companies, which are subsidiarity and integration in the European Union, which clearly force the system overall to be one of jurisdictional competition. One of the core elements of the structure of European Company law consists of disclosure rules, and these rules are quite clearly dominant in European Company law in general, whether that is speaking in regards to accounting law, the law of capital markets, or in traditional EU Company Law Directives. The structure of Euro Company law is incredibly important to the issue of how these companies in particular have emerged as significant global economic entities however there are many other reasons that need to be taken into consideration as well. One incredibly important and significant issue that needs to be raised here is that of European oil companies in particular, as they have had a great impact on the overall emergence of European companies in general. Especially with the war in Iraq which has been going on for the past few years now, there has been an increasing need for oil, and it has been European companies more than any which have been able to produce this. North America particularly by far has been more in need than any other area in the world, as they have suffered the most from this lack of oil, and thus they have been creating a popularity with the Euro Companies because they have needed to import their oil from here. Global market forces in general, in fact, have truly created a dynamic and

Men and Women in Sports Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Men and Women in Sports - Essay Example Doping issues differ slightly in both genders. The trends in challenges and rewards faced by men and women throughout history in the past and what ought to be expected in the future shall be examined in full detail in the essay below. During the early 1960s, women were quite limited during access to sporting facilities. But in the late sixties, there was the introduction of the women's liberation movement. This served as a stage in which women realized that there was inequality in this area and it also acted as a platform where they could raise their concerns about the lack of opportunity. Therefore in the seventies, most colleges and high schools began opening up their fields to allow training and practice even for women. (Fasting and Knorre, 2005) At the same time, men had been the sole dominators in the 60s and 70s. This was mostly seen by the fact that there were sports like; football, baseball and basketball were played by men. The main challenge that they faced at this time was proving their worth in their sporting activity of choice. Facilities were not a hindrance to their progress Currently, things have improved for women in comparison to what happened three decades ago. Most high schools and colleges have formed women's teams in games like tennis, swimming, volleyball and basketball. Such institutions now recognize that female teams are almost if not as important as men's team. They have now designated time for women to access facilities like swimming pools, basketball fields and others. But this does not mean that women have full access to these facilities. There are some sporting facilities that are still considered predominantly male like rugby and baseball fields. Women engaging in such sports face a lot of difficulties when trying to practice or when training. It is even worse when trying to access facilities for the purpose of competition as precedence is given to males. Men in sports have to adjust to the fact that sporting facilities are not simply for them. They are now realizing that women's sports need to be accommodated; this means that they now have to get used to the idea of sharing. Things are not being handed down to them without any struggles. 2.3 Access to facilities in the future The future looks more promising to women because there are plenty of activities voicing the inequalities that women in sports have had to bear. This means that sports will now be less restricted and it is very likely that women will have fair practice and competing times in sporting facilities in high schools, colleges and even recreational facilities. (Fasting and Sundgot-Borgen, 2000) Men will continue facing more need to adjust to the fact the facilities are not simply meant for them. It is very likely that their domination of sporting facilities will come to a slow end. 3.0 Sportsmanship 3.1 Sportsmanship in the past During the 1960s and 1970s, there was blatant discrimination of women in sports. This was the reason why there was the women's movement in 1968. Women had to deal with the fact that they were denied representation in most games and most men simply thought that their form of sport was an intriguing issue to be seen but not to betaken seriously.(Leah et al 2002) At the same

In Asthmatic Children under the age of 5yrs is spacer inhaler more Essay

In Asthmatic Children under the age of 5yrs is spacer inhaler more beneficial than a nebulizer - Essay Example The recent British thoracic Society Guidelines (20) support the use of spacer inhaler over the nebulizer. The possible advantages that accrue include reduced cost of acquisition and operation, greater potential convenience and reduced incidence of infection. It is therefore very important to asses whether spacer inhalers are beneficial in children with with extremely asthmatic episodes. The above clinical question and the suggested intervention measures are relevant in clinical practice of our modern society. C- Comparison interest: indicate that nebuliser too can offer convenience depending on the prevailing situational circumstance in relation to time, cost and available staff training and level of professionalism. Search for the articles relevant for this research review was computer based. Article database search was based on the PubMed directory. An updated PubMed search (8 April 2013), with the key terms â€Å"asthma† â€Å" spacer†, â€Å"nebuliser verses spacer inhaler†, â€Å"asthma spacer inhaler†, â€Å"spacer nebuliser comparison†, â€Å"acute asthmatic children†, â€Å"or asthma with the key term limit of meta analysis, human, all children 0-5 years. This led to acquisition of 15 citations which included two systematic reviews. First search was done based in the key terms that reflect the clinical problem â€Å"asthmatic children, nebuliser verses spacer inhaler†, â€Å"acute asthmatic† and â€Å"asthma†. This directed the search towards the acquisition of many other incidences which are prevalent to the problem in question. By reading the abstracts and key terms of the first acquired article, other terms like â€Å"juvenile asthma† and â€Å"asthma spacer nebulizer†. This gave out a new dimension of the review. The new article obtained from the secondary search show a considerable compliance and correlation of the primary sources. They

Supply Chain Management and Distribution Centers Essay Example for Free

Supply Chain Management and Distribution Centers Essay 1. Wal-Mart has been able to achieve respectable leadership in the retail industry because of its focus on supply chain management. Discuss in detail the distribution and logistics system adopted by Wal-Mart. Ans : As the world’s largest retailer with net sales of almost $219 billion for the fiscal year 2002, Wal-Mart is considered a â€Å"best-in-class† company for its supply chain management practices. These practices are a key competitive advantage that have enabled Wal-Mart to achieve leadership in the retail industry through a focus on increasing operational efficiency and on customer needs Wal-Mart’s corporate website calls â€Å"logistics† and â€Å"distribution† the heart of its operation, one that keeps millions of products moving to customers every day of the year. Wal-Mart’s complete Supply chain is aligned to provide maximum value to its customers by Every day low prices in its Stores. Wal-Mart’s highly-automated distribution centers, which operate 24 hours a day and are served by Wal-Mart’s truck fleet, are the foundation of its growth strategy and supply network. In the United States alone, the company has more than 40 regional distribution centers for import flow and more than 140 distribution centers for domestic flow .When entering a new geographic arena, the company first determines if the area will be able to contain enough stores to support a distribution center. Each distribution center supports between 75 to 100 retail stores within a 250-mile area. Once a center is built, stores are gradually built around it to saturate the area and the distribution network is realigned to maximize efficiencies through a process termed â€Å"reoptimization†. The result is a â€Å"trickle-down† effect: trucks do not have to travel as far to retail stores to make deliveries, shorter distances reduce transportation costs and lead time, and shorter lead time means holding less safety inventory. If shortages do occur, replenishment can be made more quickly because stores receive daily deliveries from distribution centers. The company’s hub-and-spoke distribution network utilizes a system of manufacturer storage with customer pickup. No inventory is stored at Wal-Mart’s distribution centers. Wal-Mart’s fleet of 3,500 dedicated trucks and over 50,000 trailers are used to pick up goods directly from manufacturers’ warehous es, thus eliminating intermediaries and increasing responsiveness. The use of trucks raises transportation costs but is justified in terms of reduced inventory. Merchandise brought in by truck to distribution centers is sorted for delivery to stores within 24 to 48 hours. However, certain goods, such as automotive and drug products, are delivered directly to stores by suppliers. Wal-Mart, a pioneer in the logistics technique of cross-docking, also has store-specific orders packed and shipped directly to the store by the manufacturer. Because Wal-Mart’s fast, responsive transportation operations are such a major part of the company’s successful logistics system, great care is taken in the hiring, training, supervising, and assigning of drivers’ schedules and job responsibilities. From the onset of his retailing career, Wal-Mart founder Sam Walton recognized the importance of hiring experienced people and of building loyalty not only in his customers but also in his employees. The company hires only experienced drivers who have driven more than 300,000 accident-free miles and whom it believes will be committed to customer service. Its retail stores are considered important â€Å"customers† of the distribution centers. As stated in the â€Å"Private Fleet Driver Handbook† that each driver is given a copy of, drivers are expected to be â€Å"polite† and â€Å"kind† when dealing with store personnel and others. In addition to containing a driver’s code of conduct, the Private Fleet Driver Handbook gives instructions and rules for following pre-planned travel routes and schedules, the responsible unloading of a truck trailer at a retail store, and the safe-guarding of Wal-Mart’s property. For example, although drivers deliver loaded trailers in the afternoon and evening hours, a trailer can be brought to the store’s docks only at its scheduled unloading time. Because unloading is done at two-hour intervals during the night, a driver is expected to spend the night, returning to the distribution center at a pre-scheduled time with an empty trailer. Coordinators closely monitor the detailed records of each driver’s activities for adherence to rules. Violations are dealt with according to handbook procedures, which include employee education to prevent future occurrences of incorrect actions. By effectively managing every aspect of its transportation operations and treating its drivers fairly, Wal-Mart gets results that are unrivaled in the logistics arena. Rules are a key to consistency, which leads to preparedness, which then leads to proper execution. To gain maximum out of cross-docking, Walmart had to make fundamental changes in its approach to managerial control. The cross-docking system changed the practice of highly centralized decision at Corporate level.The system shifted the focus from â€Å"supply chain† to the â€Å"demand chain† which meant that instead of the retailer ‘pushing ‘products into the system; customers could ‘pull’ products, when and where they needed.

Cross-cultural differences on language learners

Cross-cultural differences on language learners Introduction In this article the authors tried to measure the impact of cross-cultural differences on language learners interpretation of imageable idioms. The definition of imageable idioms: ‘idioms that have associated conventional images (Lakoff 1987:447). The study reported in this article investigated whether these imageable idioms call up the same scene in the language learners mind as in the native speakers mind. Guessing the meaning of the figurative expressions such as Pass the hat around or Hang on someones sleeve appears not to be beyond the capacities of many language learners, even at lower-intermediate levels of proficiency. The authors hypothesize that idioms relating to a metaphoric theme (conceptual metaphors or source domains) that is more salient in the target culture will tend to be less easily ‘guessable to language learners that those relating to a metaphoric theme that is more or equally salient in the L1 culture. In the experiment 78 French-speaking university students were presented with the range of unfamiliar English imageable idioms and asked to ‘guess their meaning. Despite the absence of any contextual clues, about 35% of the participants responses overall were correct. The authors consider these data to offer (tentative) support to the hypothesis. Taking into account the conjectural results of the experiment I think the research should be more elaborated and improved to achieve cogent and convincing outcome of the project. Awareness of idioms extremely facilitates reading both printed media and fiction. Reasonable application of idioms makes speech more vivid, emotional, and significant. Behind these locutions there is a whole world, historical epoch, the mode of life, beliefs of the ancestors, and real events of the remote past. I chose this topic because I have always been interested in the idioms and phraseology as they reflect the culture and history of the language itself. It is a language through which we can connect to the mentality and lifestyle of the people of the target language, moreover, nature of thinking, universe, and perception of the world can be transferred. To know a language means to be able to feel value and depth of the culture and nation of the native speakers. SLA background to the article The problem of native language interference while learning a second language is one of the central issues of linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and SLA. During the process of learning a foreign language a learner can arbitrarily use earlier acquired languages as support, comparing and contrasting the phonetic, lexical, grammatical aspects of the mother and target language. In psychology interference is defined as transfer of skills, presenting as complex human psyche phenomenon, a process which allows a man to use in his acquired intellect and motoric activity upon absolutely new or relatively new circumstances. Psychologists established that formation of a separate skill is never independent; isolated process, it is influenced by and collaborated with the whole previous experience of a man. In other words, interference is interaction of skills where earlier acquired skills impact on establishment of new ones (Vereschyagin, 1976, 131). Basing on the stated above it is clear that during the process of second language acquisition the transfer of skills is founded on the usage of the past linguistic experience which is acquired command of a native language. Thus, communication skills formed at early childhood in certain way influence on second language acquisition. Communication skills transfer from the native language to a foreign language is spontaneous, unconscious process, hidden from direct observation and taking place independently from a speakers will or wish. From linguistic point of view the term ‘interference is used according to study an issue of languages contacting for notifying modifications which is observed in the learners speech as result of different language systems interaction. However, among linguists there is no total unanimity regarding language interference. However, today most linguists are convinced that the mother tongue can affect foreign-language learners. Linguists call this process of influence from the mother tongue transfer, which is also known as cross-linguistic influence. This process can occur in all aspects of language including the vocabulary, grammar and spelling. When transfer results in something correct because the rules of the first and the second language overlap, this is referred to as positive transfer. By contrast, when transfer results in something incorrect this is referred to as negative transfer, also known as interference (Dulay et al 1982:101). In this background section I will offer a more detailed discussion of the terms mentioned and present different researchers views concerning native language interference. I will also show how linguistic studies of interference have developed over time. Contrastive Analysis During the 1940s and 1950s most errors were ascribed to interference and consequently a major part of applied linguistic research was devoted to comparing the mother tongue and the target language in order to predict or explain the errors made by learners with particular linguistic backgrounds (Corder 1981:1). This approach was the first to elucidate the problems of interference and was referred to as contrastive analysis. Contrastive analysis influenced the field of applied linguistics and second language learning for over two decades. But eventually, many linguists abandoned contrastive analysis and adopted a more positive view of the role of the first language in second language acquisition (Dulay et al 1982:97). Yet, it is still important to understand this approach because it shaped so much early linguistic research and therefore underlies much current second language teaching methodology and material (Dulay et al 1982:97). Contrastive analysis assumed that a learners first language interferes with his or her acquisition of a second language, and that it therefore constitutes the major obstacle to successful mastery of the new language (Dulay et al 1982:97). Lightbown Spada give a similar explanation: Contrastive analysis hypothesis predicts that where there are similarities between the first and the second languages, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty (Lightbown Spada 1997:23). Comparing the mother tongue and the target language was considered useful for teachers, who could predict learner errors beforehand, and thus prevent them (Heny 1994:162). However, contrastive analysis was also criticised by those who considered it impossible to predict when the errors would be made. Furthermore, the errors which learners commonly made in class were not necessarily the ones predicted by contrastive analysis. There were errors that could not be explained simply by noting the differences between the languages involved, and sometimes the errors that a contrastive analysis did predict were not found in practice (Allwright Bailey 1991:83). Contrastive analysis was considered misleading as a basis for teaching, since it encouraged the idea that first language influence was the only thing that caused learners errors (Heny 1994:165). Further questioning of the relevance of contrastive analysis was the result of the classification of learners errors in studies that became known as error analyses (Odlin 1989:18). These kinds of studies were developed during the 1970s and involved a detailed description and analysis of the kinds of errors second language learners make. The goal of this research was to discover what learners really know about the language (Lightbown Spada 1997:55). The difference between these two methods was that error analysis did not set out to predict errors on the basis of interference from the native language. Rather, it sought to discover and describe the different kinds of errors in an effort to understand how learners acquire the foreign language. One of the main challenges for error analysts was to decide what category to assign a particular error to. For example, omitting an article in English may possibly be a case of simplification (see section 2.3) with a Spanish speaker but a case of transfer with a Korean speaker (Odlin 1989:19). Lightbown Spada (1997:55) also point out that error analysis was based on the theory that the speech of second language learners is a system in its own right, one which is rule governed and predictable and very much like the system of young first language learners. Transfer The concept of transfer is based on the idea that previous learning influences on subsequent learning. In language learning, this denotes that the patterns and forms of the native language are imposed on the second language (Gass, 1979). When these are identical of the two languages and the learner uses the first language in producing the second, positive transfer takes place. The result is a correct target language pattern or form. When they are different, using those of the mother tongue to produce the equivalent form or pattern in the target language causes negative transfer. The errors that result are called interference errors. During the 1950s and 1960s, interlingual transfer was considered to be the most significant factor in learning foreign language (Politzer, 1965). However, the paradigm shift that occurred in linguistics and psychology in the 1960s established a change of focus. The emergence of generative grammar and cognitive psychology created the new discipline of psycholinguistics. Language acquisition was no longer considered as a process of forming correct habits through repetition and reinforcement, but as the result of an innate language acquisition device which operates through a process of hypothesis testing (Chomsky, 1959). Due to transfer had been associated with the habit formation theory of language acquisition, the shift to generative grammar brought with it much less stress on interference and more stress on developmental processes, learning strategies, and the structure of the target language as sources of error (Richards, 1974). Second language acquisition came to be considered as a â€Å"creative construction† process rather than the transfer of habits from the native language to the target (Dulay Burt, 1975). Kellerman (1983) addressed the relationship between L1 knowledge and interpretation of the figurative use of the L2. His studies showed that the L1 plays a role in L2 idiom processing even though L2 learners are less likely to transfer L1 knowledge when they perceive the meaning as figurative. There is a large number of terms used in discussions of the influence of the native language on a second language. One of these terms is transfer, which is also known as cross-linguistic influence. Some researchers virtually denied the existence of language transfer and others have been sceptical about its importance. Yet there are also researchers who have argued for the importance of transfer and have gone so far as to consider it the paramount fact of second language acquisition (Odlin 1989:3). However, a more balanced perspective has emerged by now, in which the role of transfer is acknowledged and in which transfer is seen to interact with a host of other factors not yet fully understood (Odlin 1989:9). A definition of the term transfer is given by Gass Selinker (2001:66): â€Å"It is a term that was used extensively in the first half of the century and refers to the psychological process whereby prior knowledge is carried over into a new learning situation.† Odlin (1989:27) offers another definition of transfer for the context of applied linguistics: â€Å"Transfer is the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.† However, Odlin (1989:28) also says that it is difficult to give a precise and correct definition of transfer as long as there is no existing adequate definition of language. While there are many definitions of transfer, the concept can be divided into positive and negative transfer. Both types of transfer refer to the automatic and subconscious use of old behaviour in new learning situations (Dulay et al 1982:101). Positive transfer results in correct performance because the new behaviour is the same, and as appropriate as, the old (Dulay et al 1982:101). According to Odlin (1989:36), the effects of positive transfer are only determinable through comparison of the success of groups with different native languages. Such comparison often shows that cross-linguistic similarities can produce positive transfer in several ways. Similarities between native language and target language vocabulary can reduce the time needed to develop good reading comprehension. Similarities between vowel systems can make the identification of vowel sounds easier. Similarities between writing systems can give learners a head start in reading and writing the target language. And s imilarities in syntactic structures can facilitate the acquisition of grammar. Learners speaking a language with a syntax similar to that of the target language tend to have less difficulty with, for example, articles, word order, and relative clauses (Odlin 1989:36). In contrast, negative transfer refers to those instances of transfer which result in errors because old, habitual behaviour is different from that to be learned (Dulay et al 1982:101). Negative transfer involves divergences from norms in the target language and it is often relatively easy to identify. Although negative transfer tends to be associated with production errors, there are other ways in which an individuals second language performance may differ from the behaviour of native speakers. Some examples of these are underproduction, overproduction and misinterpretation (Odlin 1989:37). The native language can influence the interpretation of target language messages, and sometimes that influence leads to learners inferring something very different from what speakers of the target language would infer. Misinterpretation may occur, for example, when native and target language word-order patterns or cultural assumptions differ (Odlin 1989:37). Gass Selinker (2001:68) consider the terms positive and negative transfer debatable. The question is whether transfer can be positive or negative at all: â€Å"The terms refer to the product, although the use implies a process. There is a process of transfer; there is not a negative or positive transfer.† Both Dulay et al (1982:101) and Heny (1994:164) are instead questioning how one can know exactly what is being transferred. Is it principles, word-patterns or sound? However, while it appears to be difficult to determine exactly what is being transferred, most linguists do agree that the mother tongue can affect learners English in several ways (Swan Smith 2001:11). Interlanguage The term interlanguage,introduced by Larry Selinker (1972), was coined in the belief that the language learners language was a sort of hybrid between his or her first language and the target language. The evidence of this was the large number of errors which could be ascribed to the process of transfer. But when second language acquisition researchers began to collect data from learners not receiving formal instruction, particularly children, the production of transfer errors was generally found to be quite small. Clearly interlanguage was not simply a hybrid language but had a developmental history of its own (Corder 1981:2). Some of the structures produced by the learners are to be found neither in their first language nor in the language they are learning, i.e. no native speaker of either language ever produces them (Malmkjà ¦r 2004:83). Lightbown Spada (1997:122) explain that interlanguage is systematic, but also dynamic and continually evolving as learners receive more input a nd revise their hypotheses about the second language. Culture and language Interconnection of languages and cultures, the necessity of their co-learning makes no doubts. Learning foreign languages as means of communication between representatives of different people and cultures must be inseparable with the world and culture of people, speaking these languages. In his sociocultural cognitive theory of development Leo Vygotsky, a great Russian psychologist, put culture and social factors into the central chain. The driving force of development, according to him, is external factors. It differs from most other social approaches in considering interaction as an essential power rather than as just a helpful condition for learning. In the foundation of his theory there three principles: the importance of culture, pivotal role of a language and interaction of a learner with an environment. The critique Thus, the authors of the reviewing article, Boers and Demecheleer, tried to gauge the impact of cross-cultural and cross-linguistic differences on language learners interpretation of imageable idioms, concluding with a set of guidelines to anticipate and remedy the comprehension problems of figurative expressions. First, the authors presented only brief classification of idioms regarding the determination the degree of semantic transparency of an idiom, different factors can influence, such as whether the idioms are non-decomposable, or reflect a common metaphoric theme, or are closely associated with a given metaphoric theme; there are idioms with a clear etymological origin as well as culture-specific grounding. Besides, idioms have certain specific features, such as: idioms are used as a one meaning unit in discourse; having holistic meaning, idioms are not created all over again in the discourse, but are retained and retrieved from the memory as ready word combinations; idioms have permanent content of their components. Moreover, idioms can be classified according to whether they contain a noun phrase denoting a person, subject or phenomenon: better half, chip of the old block, copy cat; or a verbal phrase, designating an action or a process: to keep the fall rolling, to catch someones eye, to hit the ceiling; attributive phrases, denoting features, qualities of a person or object: all thumbs, blue blood, proud as a peacock, armed to the teeth; adverbial phrases, specifying characteristics of an action or process: with flying colours, till Kingdom come, till the cows come home; modal phrases, denoting various attitude of a speaker towards a situation: its another pair of shoes, its not my cup of tea. Second, in the article there is lack of SLA theory considered. The authors do not specify any second language acquisition theory in particular, limiting with some remarks Further, for the experiment only 24 idioms were selected involving the imagery of hat, sleeves, ship and food. I subject that this amount of idioms is enough for the experiment as well as the imagery unlikely reflect the culture and traditions of the English people and their language. I would suggest including the following imagery that inherent to the English culture: bird, fish, horse, pig, such as: like a bird, a bird in the bush; a fish out of water, a loose fish; beat a dead horse, horse and horse; when pigs fly, buy a pig in a poke. Moreover, the selected idioms such as Hang up ones hat, Keep something under ones hat are old-fashioned and less used now. The authors included only idioms which did not have one-to-one equivalents in French. In order to assess the possible impact of cross-cultural differences on the ‘guessability of these idioms to French speakers, the authors called in the help five ‘blind judges, who were native speakers of English, and experienced EFL teachers. However, I suppose, to be confident that they have no one-to-one equivalent in the French language; these idioms have to be considered by French native speakers as well. However, the transferability of the idioms appears to be the major factor in learning a second language, as a learner can connect the knowledge of his native figurative language with the foreign one. The problem is cross-cultural differences. For example, it is very difficult to find one-to-one equivalent. During the experiment the participants were given about 20 minutes to try to guess the meaning of the selected idioms without contextual clues. Id like to point out that in real life we meet idioms in all forms of discourse: in conversations, lectures, movies, radio broadcasts, and television programmes. Thereby, I assume that the context will facilitate the comprehension, and giving idioms without any context is not natural. The results of the experiment were the following: almost 35% of the respondents answers were at least partially correct. The researchers concluded that the semantics of many idioms need not be tackled as arbitrary in language-learning contexts. Students can be encouraged to first try to decode imageable idioms independently. i.e. as a problem-solving task requiring a deeper level of cognitive processing, before resorting to the teacher or the dictionary for corroboration or falsification (Lennon 1998). A deep level of cognitive processing is known to be beneficial for long-term memory storage (Ellis 1994). Moreover, in common learning conditions idioms are given in a context, which facilitates comprehension considerably (Cooper 1999). The analysis of research methodology In their experiment the authors applied questionnaires. This type of data collection is the most widespread, first, because it is self-administered and can be given to a large groups of subjects at the same time, besides it is less expensive to administer that other procedures such as interviews. Second, since the same questionnaire is given to all subjects, the data are more uniform and standard, as well as since they are usually given to all subjects of the research at exactly the same time, the data are more accurate. And one more is not the least of the factors is anonymity; subjects tend to share information of a sensitive nature more easily. The research involved 78 French-speaking students of University of Brussels. The group was quite heterogeneous, and in general their level of English proficiency was intermediate. The participants were given twenty minutes to try to guess the meaning of the selected twelve idioms without contextual clues. In order to avoid a common problem of questionnaires as misunderstanding of questions themselves as well as the proper replies to the questions relevant to research in second language, as subjects very often have obstacles in reading and providing answers in L2, the participants were allowed to use the French language to present their ideas. Discussion The authors propose practical guidelines for the teachers whose learners encounter an unfamiliar idiom in a text, i.e. a strategy, involving six stages, to anticipate and remedy comprehension problems. Therewith it is pointed out that all six stages will always need to be passed through in practice, but can be taken as a checklist to remind teachers of the variables involved in idiom comprehension. Above all these stages the crucial point to my mind is resorting to contextual clues to infer the meaning of an idiom. It is necessary to persuade learners to comparison and correlation of language devices of contacting languages all the time when it can prevent the interference and make positive transfer. Linguistic competence suggests mastering of certain amount of formal knowledge connected with various language aspects: phonetic system, vocabulary, grammatical structure during their historical development and at the modern stage, as well as certain skills of application of these language means for different linguistic purposes, such as language analysis, including forms and meanings; analysis of special features of language units application separately and in context; comparison of various language phenomena at different periods of language development; consolidation or differentiation of language phenomena by a certain factor (factors); etymological analysis of a language unit, existing in a modern language system. The achievement of these goals facilitates the development of linguistically oriented thinking of the learners, namely ability to carry out linguistic analysis of various language phenomena and factors, single out the principal and secondary, draw a conclusion out of t he analysis results, generalize the received data, compare linguistic facts, classify them. Besides, taking into account â€Å"zone of proximal development† of L.S. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, which implies solving a problem with the assistance of an â€Å"expert†, who provides ‘scaffolding, and then internalizes the solution, the authors suggest to corroborate or falsify the learners hypotheses. If learners are on the right track, then offer further guidance towards the full interpretation. If they stay in the dark, then clarify the meaning of the idiom. Once the meaning of the idiom is established Boers and Demecheleer offer to invite the learners to ‘motivate it. This stage is meant to show the non-arbitrary nature of many figurative expressions. Various approaches can be tried. One can associate the idiom with a more vivid or concrete scene. For instance, Passing the hat around can be associated with the scene of someone collecting money for a street musician, Having something up ones sleeve can be linked with the scene of a magician performing tricks, which is a common source of verbal humour, can be a fruitful technique to paint more vivid pictures in the learners mind (Irujo 1986). On the whole, concreteness and vivid imagery facilitate the retention of novel vocabulary (Sokmen 1997). One can also try to lay bare ‘logic of a given idiom. For example, Kill two birds with one stone obviously means to take more advantages doing one thing. Evidently, not all imageable idioms lend themselves easily to such explanations, but the cognitive effort put into the brainstorming activity may nevertheless be beneficial for retention and language awareness. A complementary approach to ‘motivating idioms is to look for their possible etymological origin. The lions mouth, for example, has biblical origin, meaning a dangerous place; to carry coals to Newcastle implies to do useless things as Newcastle is the centre of the English coal industry. Finally, if the idiom exemplifies a metaphoric theme that is more salient in the target culture than in the learners culture, then raise the learners awareness of the cross-cultural variation. Though this particular article has not been responded, cited, or used in any research or writing, having looked through the recent studies, I can find that Boers and Demecheleers scope of work has developed into Another prominent approach of Conclusion Interaction of languages is all possible varieties of mutual influence, interpenetration of two or more languages and their dialects. Borrowing of different linguistic factors by a language from another, as well as results of language interaction I consider as an enrichment process. However, dominance and subjection cannot be avoided and in linguistic contacts there is no language equity, one of the languages always subdues another. Thus, learning a foreign language a man profits to look at the world from other, not usual, point of view. It is not without reason there is a proverb: â€Å"How many languages you know, so many times you are a man†.

Ethan Frome Essays -- essays papers

Ethan Frome ‘He was but the ruin of a man’. What factors have contributed to Ethan’s tragic fate? The first factor which adds to Ethan’s tragic fate is time. The book is mainly set in the nineteenth century and in those times things like divorce and adultery were less acceptable. Ethan would have felt morally wrong to leave this wife working on a poor farm or just leaving her money. Ethan’s birth into a poor family and in the time he was born, meant that he couldn’t really do anything so he was left unhappy. There was no welfare state in the nineteenth century America so again Ethan had to accept the burden of looking after his parents and wife, paying all of Zeena’s medical ’needs’ with no help. Ethan must have found these times hard because he received no help, he was the one who had to help everyone else. Ethan Frome’s wife Zeena is quite a hypochondriac, as we hear in the prologue that the post-master at ‘intervals’ would hand him medicine packages. Again we hear of this at page forty seven that Zeenaâ€⠄¢s last visit to the doctor cost Ethan twenty dollars, money he can’t afford to be wasted. We are also told about Ethan’s desire to learn about science but with no university grants at that time and Ethan being part of a poor health stricken family he had to stop studying and go back to ’caring’ just like he does for the rest of his days. He runs a farm which seems to be run down and again because of the time there were no farm subsides to help Ethan out so the farm worries add to his plight. Mattie’s ‘coming to [the] house’ was due to her having no work to do or anywhere to stay. After her father’s death she was ’left on her own to make her way on fifty dollars’. There were fewer job... ...up’. Ethan and Mattie realise that because they can’t be with each other because of these factors I have discussed they discide to end it together. Both Mattie and Ethan express their love for each other on the top of the slope, the first time that they actually kissed and expressed love for one another. They sooner realised ’what’s the good of either of [them] going anywheres without the other one now?’ ‘Some erratic impulse’ and their love drove them to try and commit suicide. Ethan suffered after the ’smash up’. He became ’the ruin of a man’ through his ’warped right side’ and ’red gash’ across Frome’s forehead. The accident scared both Mattie and Ethan for life and changed their life forever and with the mental factors for example the economic problems along with the last physical factor, the ’smash up’ has contributed to his tragic fate.

Corporate Social Responsibility with HIV / AIDS Drugs :: Social Responsibility Essays

â€Å"Each year, just three diseases kill 5.4 million people worldwide. Malaria kills at least one million, mainly in developing countries, with 90% of the deaths in Africa. Tuberculosis causes 1.9 million deaths a year, almost all of them in developing countries, where resistance to the five major anti-tubercular drugs is spreading. Some 400,000 of the tuberculosis victims are also HIV positive. The yearly death toll for HIV/Aids is almost 2.5 million, with about 1.8 million concentrated in the Sub-Saharan Africa† The Times Higher 20/07/01 Assess the responsibilities of the pharmaceutical companies for providing low cost drugs to the poor people in the developing countries. There is no generally accepted definition for corporate social responsibility (CSR), although various theorists have attempted to surmise one. One useful definition is provided by Archie Carroll (1979): ‘The social responsibility of business encompasses the economic, legal, ethical and discretionary expectations that society has of organisations at a given point in time’ Another definition is offered by Kok et al: ‘The obligation of the firm to use its resources in ways to benefit society, through committed participation as a member of society, taking into account the society at large and improving the welfare of society at large independent of direct gains of the company.’ An alternative definition by Frederick et al (1988): ‘business and society are interdependent and co-exist, with business using society's resources and, in turn, fulfilling economic needs and changing social goals Thus, business and society are bound by a reciprocal "social contract" which is seen as the "core idea of corporate social responsibility† These definitions encapsulate the notion that business has a responsibility to society as a whole, aside from the basic profit maximising ideas dictated by traditional free-market theory. in direct contrast from the classical economic sense of increasing shareholder wealth (Friedman, 1970) that it is a ‘fundamentally a subversive doctrine’. In the pharmaceutical industry has ia system that produces drugs in two categories. Category A would include drugs for conditions like

The One Truth Of Reality Essay -- essays research papers

The One Truth of Reality The one single truth of reality is not measured or distinguished -- it is the ultimate paradox. The journey by which one achieves this truth can be a journey of increasing realizations of paradoxes, and finally, freedom from the bubble of limitation of a mind that would perceive such paradoxes as paradoxes in the first place. Truth is the same as spiritual feeling. Of spiritual perception. Of clear perception. Of freedom of the mind. Freedom of the soul. Freedom of the Heart. It is ultimate love and empathy. The end of struggle. Fully knowing the truth is to be enlightened. Fully realizing the truth is having transcended the distortions of the Machine (see The Machine at my web site given below). Truth means complete fulfillment and true happiness. Truth is impossible to change or destroy -- doing so contradicts the very nature of a single truth from which all things seen through distorted perception stem. Finding truth (and thus everything that it is) is the ultimate subconscious goal of all struggling. The search for truth, the want of truth, paradoxically, most often leads to illusion and darkness and pain. This is the case for the general spiritual state of humanity in the late Twentieth Century. In this way, truth, freedom, love, clear perception, purity, transcendence, and enlightenment are all the very same thing. During the journey, one will no doubt see many facets of truth and see them as separate, distinguished, or part of a duality; but in time, one will see how they all link up and ultimately, how everything is a part of the same thing, and how perceiving everything in terms of truth is transcendence of distinguishment and knowing the truth; and in this way, being enlightened, free, and fulfilled -- attaining the ultimate happiness. Transcendent of the Measurable What is perceived tangibly through the primary five senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell) contradicts the nature of truth which is actually transcendent of all distinguishments in the "more tangible" environment. When a person focuses on what he (or she) sees and reacts to it and especially seeks to control his environment, he lives in a dualistic (or polyistic) state wherein lives his struggle to find non-struggle and peace and fulfillment. The illusion is what is sensed through these five senses and having perceived this as somethin... ... the transcendent planes, including the Mindscape. The Journey The journey is the process of the growth of awareness and insight into ultimate truth. Eventually, this means awareness beyond simple intellectual facts, but an awareness of one's truest self, and thus an awareness into the truest nature of everything. Mentally, this can be perceived, just as feelings can be perceived. To feel free of the struggle of pain and pleasure is to feel the currents of the one's entire being, and in this know oneself; and in this, know the truth; and in this, be truly free; and given an end to the quest for self there is an end to the deepest loneliness (which ultimately is confusion regarding oneself) and the greatest sense of fulfillment. The goal, then, should be to find and submit oneself completely to, like water, the feelings that may be perceived (visualized or seen) by the mind as white light. This is a journey through the maze of walls that are a result of the struggling of the psyche in the midst of the darkness and confusion. The easiest way to find the way out of a maze is to rise above (transcend) it and, seeing the light of the universe beyond, find a path leading to the exit.

Myths that Hide the American Indian Essay

Nearly everyone in this world is guilty of stereotyping against a certain race, religion, ethnic group, nationality, etc. One of those groups that are stereotyped is the Native Americans. Ever since the Europeans â€Å"discovered† the New World, there have myths about the Native Americans that lead to this stereotyping. In the essay, â€Å"Myths That Hide the American Indian† by Oliver La Farge, many of those myths are brought up. Due to these myths about the Native Americans, people’s views, past and present, of who and what they are have become extremely distorted, or essentially hiding the Native Americans from white people. One of the many myths that the Europeans created about the Native Americans is that they are bloodthirsty, ruthless savages. Oliver La Farge does a good job in his essay of discounting this myth by giving multiple examples of how most groups of Native Americans were a peaceful group of people that just were not quite as well developed socially, economically, technologically, etc. as the Europeans. Because of this lack of development on behalf of the Native Americans, the Europeans looked at the Native Americans as uncivilized savages. The reason that this myth was even created was to justify the slaughtering of thousands of Native Americans at the hands of the Europeans, with the justification being that they were inferior beings, which is another myth brought up. Once the Europeans had conquered the Native Americans, this myth was altered, now proclaiming that the Native Americans were drunken, lazy good-for-nothings. La Farge also discounts this part of the myth in his essay. Going back to the point of the Europeans thinking they were superior a superior race when being compared to the Native Americans, that would happen in any situation if the circumstances were similar because it is human nature to believe that if one race able to conquer another race, then they will believe they are superior. This is one of the continuing myths that have hid the Native Americans from white people. Another one of the myths that plagued the Native Americans is that the early European settlers tended to assume that all or most of the Native Americans had one culture and that they were all at about the same stage of development. This myth could not be further from the truth. â€Å"The tribes and nations that occupied North America varied enormously, and their condition was anything but static† (pg. 7). The cultures of the Native Americans were like snowflakes; no two were alike. Many different types of cultures are described in detail in the essay, proving that the myth is completely wrong. Each tribe of Native Americans had a culture that, while considered backwards and wrong by the Europeans, was unique. This myth helped to hide the Native Americans from white settlers because if the whites got to know the culture of one tribe, they would just assume that all of the other tribes had identical cultures. If that culture they learned had some barbaric practices, like the Aztecs sacrificing men by tearing out their hearts, they would assume that all tribes did that and further prove the myth that Native Americans were savages. That is how this myth hid the Native Americans from white people. The first myth that was ever started about the Native Americans is the Noble Red Man or Child of Nature myth. What this myth is about is the Europeans considered the Native Americans to be children of nature. Also, it â€Å"credited the Indian with either a penchant for flowery but dull oratory or an inability to communicate beyond ‘Ugh’ and grunts† (pg. 4). This myth puts the Native Americans on the same level as an animal. If the Europeans thought the Native Americans were that ignorant, then it is no wonder why they thought that they were a superior race. The Native Americans became hidden by this myth because it is so completely false and completely misrepresents them as a whole because they had developed languages and could communicate with one another. Myths about Native Americans have, and will continue to be a cause of people stereotyping them. Because of the stereotyping, most people will never know the truth about Native Americans and they will remain hidden from white people. This stereotyping has gone so far that today, Native Americans will get dressed up for tourists in a costumes and put on war dances just to please tourists who believe in the myth because if they did not, the tourists would question the legitimacy of them. That is how myths of the Native Americans have hid them.

Globalization of Non-Western Cultures Essay

Globalization is an important concept for many capitalist. It is the process of developing an integrated society where interchange of culture, products and world view are recognized. Globalization could bring advances in technology and economic development to many countries. It brings greater interdependence and awareness among the people of the world. Aside from these benefits, globalization could also affect any country’s interdependence for economy and culture. In this paper, examples of native non-Western cultures that have been impacted by globalization will be discussed and one of those examples will be further analyzed. China is an example of non-Western culture that has been impacted by the globalization. The impact of globalization in China mainly affected their economy. From a culture that mainly relied on economic self-sufficiency, China has transformed to a progressive economy that is more open to trade and foreign economy (Overholt, 2005). Another non-Western culture that has been impacted by globalization is India. Globalization altered the view and treatment to women within the male-dominant society. With globalization, there is the power to uproot the traditional views towards women so they can take equal stance in the society. Influence of Globalization in the Chinese Culture China is very rich in its cultural heritage. Their culture has survived for many centuries. Highlights of their culture include particular festivals, dresses, foods, music, etc (Bransteller, 2006). Chinese culture was once one of the most significant opponents of globalization. But as going from one country to another in search for better jobs and lifestyle, people meet other nationalities and results to cultural diffusion. Influence of globalization in the Chinese culture has caused by several factors. First to influence the Chinese economy and culture is the west. It has greatly influenced the Chinese culture, just like its impact all over the world. The free trade policies are also a factor. With these, more products of other  countries are imported by China, thus represent the culture of other nations. Diversity also immensely influenced Chinese culture with regards to its music, food, language, clothing and other traditions. Media plays a great role in manipulating many cultur es. Outside factors and ideas were brought into China which causes major changes in lifestyle of Chinese people. Effects of Globalization Globalization has had its major effects on the Chinese culture. Their ethics and economy is one of the major positive impacts. After experiencing globalization, the Chinese economy became one of the most prosperous economies in the world. The main factor that brought benefits for the Chinese economy due to globalization is that interchange of products which widens their international market. Due to globalization, a new dimension of trade was introduced and more Chinese products were exported to the markets all over the world (Gao, 2003). This earns them foreign exchange and gives other countries awareness about their heritage. And with diversification, Chinese culture was given new ways and options to do a certain job. The main effect of globalization to the Chinese economy is the widening of market. However, globalization has also had some negative effects. Adoption of western culture as their own and inclination to western cultural heritage were major effects. Chinese people misinterpret Modernization as Westernization. Westernization has altered some of the Chinese rich culture and other institutions. Education system of China was altered. The traditional Chinese curriculum was replaced by new curriculums and courses. Clothing was also changed. People preferred wearing jeans and t-shirts rather than wearing cheongsams and coats. Another major effect is on food. Globalization caused the replacements of traditional Chinese restaurants with fast food chains. China’s Response to Globalization Many of the major cities in China have quickly embraced globalization. The main evidence of Chinese response to globalization is the developing urbanization. Major cities of China have been massively populated due to the rapid interchange of products which brought many opportunities for trades and jobs. Although China has joined the globalization system late, this does not hinder their success in the world economy today. With much more  enthusiasm, China’s economy is more open than those of other countries. China adjusts its internal structures as it participates in the globalization. Indeed, with the integration into the world economy, Beijing pursuits the goal to play an active role in setting rules of world economy (Lardy, 1994). The Chinese policy towards globalization is also a power policy. It aims at increasing China’s influence on the world affairs. Today, China is sending missions throughout the world to seek for the best practice. Aside from foreign technolo gy and foreign corporate management techniques, China also adapts a wide variety of foreign institutions and practices. Though China entered the world economy that is dominated by the West, the Chinese leadership is apparently winning initiatives in creating a new world order (Lardy, 1994). A more active China is participating in the world trade because of this reason. Today, China influences the direction of globalization in a more intensive manner. References: Bransteller, L., & J. Lardy. (2006). China’s Embrace of Globalization. National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Gao, T. (2003). Globalization and China: Impact on Economy and People’s Quality of Life. Zarb School of Business, Hofstra University. Lardy, N. (1994). China in the World Economy. Institute for International Economics, Washington.Overholt, W. (2005). China and Globalization, RAND Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

The Myth of Cyberterrorism

Problems in economy With using viruses, worm has costed to the USA $15 bil 2 Mind hackers targeted government computers Content and Organisation Read the paragraph below taken from the text â€Å"Myth of Cyberterrorism† and analyse the content and organisation. â€Å"The main reason for this controversy is that cyber-threats have not materialized as a national security threat, even granted that there have been some few incidents with at least some potential for grave consequences.Interestingly enough, both hypers and de-hypers tend to agree on this point. But while the first group assumes that vicious attacks that wreak havoc and paralyze whole nations are imminent, more cautious researchers often point to the practical difficulties of a serious cyberattack (Ingles-le Nobel, 1999), question the assumption of critical infrastructure vulnerabilities (Lewis, 2002; Smith, 1998, 2000), or point to unclear benefits of cyber- attacks for terrorist groups (Barak, 2004).Despite this c aution, however, even the second group contends that one â€Å"cannot afford to shrug off the threat† (Denning, 001 a) due to unclear and rapid tuture technological development as well as dynamic change of the capabilities of terrorism groups themselves (Technical Analysis Group, 2003). To summarize the debate in a nutshell: due to too many uncertainties concerning the scope of the threat, experts are unable to conclude whether cyber-terror is fact or fiction, or, since they are unwilling to dismiss the threat completely, how long it is likely to remain fiction.

Should Prisoners be Treated as Humans

Some people believe that once a person commits a crime or breaks the law, they no longer get to exercise their human rights. In fact, they believe that prisoners do not deserve human rights. The treatment of these inmates come into question; especially when most facilities and prisons are overcrowded, receiving more mentally ill prisoners, and female incarceration is on the rise. The problem with some of society is they do not want prisoners to be treated with any common, human decency. They believe inmates have it great by eating healthy and receiving adequate medical care.Being able to work out and learn new trades for the future has some of society’s members upset with paying tax monies for these types of â€Å"amenities†. I believe that every human has the right to meals and preventive health care. People should not have to fear for their safety or health because they have committed a crime. I do not feel they should receive good treatment: punishment should be adeq uate for the crime committed, but the prisoner should not be in threat of starvation, abusive treatment from other inmates or staff, or fear of medical neglect.Prisoners are in fact human beings and of course punishment was much worse in ancient times. There would be severe physical punishment, and living conditions while incarcerated were much worse than conditions today. Let’s explore some of the treatment of prisoners and the and how they are sometimes affected by this treatment. I believe treating prisoners as you would any other person: with the most basic human rights. This is an ethical dilemma we as society are faced with. The world and the incidents that occur in it are very unpredictable.There are plenty of people who never expected or thought they would ever become incarcerated. I, personally, was incarcerated from age seventeen to age thirty-three. I have experienced quite a bit of unethical treatment, as well as been a witness to this treatment. There is no self- defense law here in California. I was attacked by a girl with a gun. We fought over this gun and she was shot once in the neck. During the time of the scuffle, she was wanted for an outstanding warrant for the murder of a pregnant woman. I was convicted for attempted murder and sentenced to fourteen years of incarceration as an eighteen year old.My incarceration was to take place in a California State Prison for Women. Upon my reception to state prison, I have been victim to and witnessed unethical behavior towards the prisoners. With prison overcrowding and an influx off inmates who are mentally ill. There are also the drug offenders. The drug offenders make up a large group of prisoners. There are a variety of ethnicities, backgrounds, and classes of individuals incarcerated. Prison overcrowding contributes to a lot of the unethical treatment of prison inmates. When the prisons are overcrowded, inmates are not segregated amongst other inmates of their same security levels or risks .Sometimes these conditions make it easy for crimes to be committed within the facility or institution. Many high risk inmates will make victims out of the less violent, vulnerable inmates. The prisoners can become victims of rape, theft, assault, and sometimes murder. Some prisoners have been known to commit suicide because the conditions in prison are too difficult to deal with. To report any crime committee against you while a prisoner, can lead to retaliation from the prison population; terrorizing one with fear.There is what is called â€Å"moral† intuition. According to Mosser (2010),  intuition is described as unexplainable feelings a person may have about something being â€Å"right† or â€Å"wrong†. My intuition tells me it is wrong to treat anyone with inhumane behavior. It is not correct to put an individual in harm way just because they have made a mistake to society. Yes, they should definitely pay the price for whatever crime is committed. Mental ly ill persons have also contributed to the prison population. Several inmates really just need to be placed somewhere that can provide the mental help needed to help rehabilitate them. With so few doctors and staff for the mentally ill, it seems rehabilitation is just an illusion.With mentally ill patients integrated into a prison population, there are bound to be conflicts, as well as abuse. Abuse occurs among the inmates as I have mentioned earlier. Although, half of California’s mental hospitals were closed by the late 1960s, Governor Reagan, during the late 1970s shut down the mental hospitals completely (Torrey, E. F. , M. D. , Kennard, A. D. , Eslinger, D. , Lamb, R. , M. D. , Pavle, J. , 2010). With overcrowding, and barely enough of a budget to care for the health of the inmates, how can a prisoner’s mental hygiene be taken care of?Most of these prisoners are forced to be confined in solitary confinement. Metzner (2010) states, â€Å"The adverse effects of so litary confinement are especially significant for persons with serious mental illness, commonly defined as mental disorder (e. g. , schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder) that is usually characterized by psychotic symptoms and/or significant functional impairments (para. 4). Solitary confinement can do more harm than good. Inmates may possibly leave prison in a worse state than when they entered prison.People worry   about tax dollars going to prisoner’s food and shelter, but if a prisoner can be â€Å"corrected† by the department of corrections, that will lower the recidivism rate and less prisoners will return to prison. Earlier, I mentioned drug offenders making up a great deal of the prison population. Some people’s addiction does not stop because they are incarcerated. Male officers outnumber female officers by two to one. Male officers make up at least two-thirds of the officers and guards. There are times I have witnessed my cellmat e receiving drugs forsexual favors for the officer. The officer will come at a time when there are no there are no other people around and request these sexual favors. Some guards would even make a girl have sex with them. They would threaten to change the inmate’s release date, or cause the inmate to be placed in a position to be caused physical harm by other inmates. These unethical treatments should not be overlooked. Many women are victims of abuse and domestic violence. They have attempted to leave a situation with an abusive partner, and this leads to the homicide if the partner.Donna Hazley (2010) states, â€Å"The same legal system that fails or refuses to protect battered women prosecutes them vigorously when they fight back (para. 11). There are also women incarcerated with hopes of returning to society as a rehabilitated individual, and return to caring for their families. Not all people that are incarcerated always lose custodial rights of their children. They ho pe to return to care for these children. These children deserve a chance, if it is possible to rehabilitate their parents. Not everyone serving a prison sentence is an outcast, monster, or society’s reject.These are human people with human feelings, and emotions. Again, I say no one should be subjected   to these treatments because they have committed a crime. No one can truly know the remorse a person feels for the things they have done wrong, and therefore, should not impose upon them abuse. In approaching this issue of the unethical treatment of prisoners, I believe the classical theory of deontology could resolve this issue. Deontology is described as looking at the reason the act was committed instead of the consequences of an act (Mosser, 2010).It is a deontologist’s position that we treat everyone with respect, and consider each human being’s dignity when dealing with them. If it is considered why a woman has committed a violent crime against her spouse , then maybe she can be treated with ethical treatment, instead of what one feels is much deserved abuse because she is a prisoner. According to an article by the Human’s Rights Watch, A video tape at a California state facility showed two officers severely beating and kicking two inmates (2004). Deontologists theorize that no one should be beaten and kicked for no reason. It is unethical to treat a person with such excessive force.Virtue ethics is also an approach that can be taken to resolve the issue I have presented of unethical behavior of prisoners. Virtue ethics focuses more on the character of the person performing the act (Mosser, 2010). If we paid attention to the individual that performed the crime, we may better understand a way to effectively deal with the person without imposing any abuse upon the individual. Utilitarian’s ethical approach is basing a decision on the best outcome for the greater number (Mosser, 2010). It is likely to be beneficial to soci ety to treat prisoners with common human rights, and not subject them to inhumane behavior.If people can rehabilitate, instead of   become at risk for mental issues, high recidivism, and absence from the family, society will benefit as a whole. There will not be the need to spend so many tax dollars on prisons because so many prisons will not be needed. Families will be united and given the tools necessary to prosper and benefit, having a positive effect on children being raised with their parents. The problem with the deontologist’s theory is that a relativist will say that it is not their problem to concern themselves with how prisoners are being treated.Relativism is the values regarded by an individual based on their own ethical standards; usually based on their background and culture (Mosser, 2010). One will argue that it is what prisoners deserve because that is just what they believe. It may be acceptable in someone’s society to mistreat prisoners and the mist reatment not be considered unethical. Emotivism suggests that moral claims express an emotional response or attitude (Mosser, 2010). Mostly, people feel as if prisoners deserve unfair treatment. In fact, people feel as if they don’t deserve to be treated as human beings at all.Emotivism can reduce our moral judgment to something so simple like an emotional response; we may be robbing someone of a fair ethical decision. In my opinion, this can cause harm to the greater number of individuals effected by the decision, thus, presenting a challenge to the issue of utilitarianism. In this case the moral issue will not be examined because it is being responded to in an emotional way. Virtue ethics, I remind you, focuses on the virtues of the person performing the act. It is not an easy thing to do, trying to determine why a person made a certain choice.This person or group of individuals could have made this choice for a number of reasons. Sometimes, it is much more apparent why a p erson or group has done something. Other times, it is not.   Ethical egoism can be the challenge to virtue ethics. Ethical egoism argues that our moral decisions should be based on our desires and goals (Mosser, 2010). Our personal goals and desires are what motivate us make many of the decisions we make in our lives. If an outcome does not appeal to our goals and desires, we tend to find a way to dispute that.Finding a person’s virtue may conflict with our personal goals and desires. A person may have been robbed once before, and now has a biased toward anyone that has committed a crime, regardless of their motivation to commit the offense. If the victim’s personal desire is to see any person who commits theft to â€Å"rot† in prison, they will not consider the virtue ethics of a prisoner, therefore, the unethical treatment of prisoners seeming completely ethical to the ethical egoist. Having served so much time in prison, deontology is the closest view to my own.I believe that every action has a consequence and people need to suffer a consequence when they have broken the law. Respecting this theory, I still believe that everyone should be treated with respect and human decency. Although, I shot the young lady in the struggle over the gun, she was already wanted and convicted of murder. I feared for my life, as well as did not intend to cause great bodily injury; otherwise, I would have shot her repeatedly. Finances and social class had a lot to do with my conviction. I was unable to afford the best attorney and I was what was considered â€Å"at-risk† urban youth.Society did not care about the reason the victim ended up shot once. It was argued by strangers who did not know me that I deserved to serve fourteen years, and maybe even deserved to be shot myself. Either way, I am a decent human being, who wanted nothing other than to reintegrate into society and make a positive life for myself. People could never understand that un less they have been in prison, or have a family member who has spent time in prison. There are people who deserve to be treated fairly no matter whether they   have committed a crime or not.I am sure I can benefit from therapy. It feels as if sometimes, I am suffering from post-traumatic stress. I feel I didn’t deserve to receive some of the abuse that I have fallen victim to. Inhumane treatment in prisons should be investigated. Society should take time to weigh all the issues and realize heinous crimes are committed and one absolutely should pay their debt to society, but never at the cost of their basic human rights. â€Å"All persons deprived of liberty shall be treated at all times with humanity and with respect for the inherent dignity of the human person†, (OHCHR, 2005).